Archive for Science

Development of Sciences under Muslims

December 24, 2007 at 10:31 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Muslim Inventions, Science, The Qur'an ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , ,

Development of Sciences under Muslims         

Mathematics, Medical sciences, Surgery, Medicine, Geography, and Astronomy

Islam strongly urges mankind to study and explore the universe. In the Holy Qu’ran, it is written that:                                                                                                              

“We (Allah) will show you (mankind) our signs/patterns in the horizons/universe and in yourselves until you are convinced that the revelation is the truth.” [Qur'an, 14:53]

This invitation to explore the universe made Muslims interested in several sciences, including astronomy, mathematics, chemistry etc. It is then, that the real valuable contribution to several sciences began.

Mathematics

In the field of mathematics, bold experiments were carried out by Muslim mathematicians, under which mathematics flourished greatly and very undoubtly.Algebra was said to be invented by the Greeks, but only because;

“It was confined to furnishing amusement for the plays of the goblet”.

This is according to Oelsner. It is actually the Muslims who developed and applied the algebra as we know it in this present age, and we consider Al-Khawarizmi to be the father of algebra, because of his extensive and vital contribution to the subject.

After Al-Khawarizmi the first great mathematician and inventor of algebra, mathematics notably developed under others after him, especially Umar Khayyam.  

 Muslims were the first people to introduce the sine of arc in trigonometrical calculations, and it was the Muslims who invented spherical trigonometry.Muslims also discovered tangent functions and the discovery of zero was a big and invaluable contribution to the field of mathematics. Muslims also made great progress in mathematical geography.Muslims organized numbers into the decimal system, to base ten, and also invented symbols to represent unknown numbers or quantities i.e. x.

The system of Arabic numerals only came to Europe through Al-Khawarizmi’s Latin translations of his work, which came to Europe through Spain.

The word “algorithm” is derived from Al-Khawarizmi’s name. Muslim mathematicians excelled in geometry, and it can be seen in their graphical art.

Al-Biruni (who excelled also in the fields of natural history, geology and mineralogy) was the one who established trigonometry as a distinct branch in mathematics, while other Muslim mathematicians excelled in mathematical theory.

In one way or another, mathematics is involved in nearly all subjects, from art to astrology, from medicine to geology. If it wasn’t for these Muslims, mathematics may never have flourished as it did under the Muslims, and we may never have become as advanced as we are today.

Medical sciences, surgery and medicine

Muslims gave a lasting contribution to the subjects of medical sciences, surgery and medicine. In Islam, the body is a source of appreciation for it was created by God Almighty. How the body functions, how to keep your body clean and how to prevent or cure diseases became an important issue to Muslims. The prophet Muhammad himself urged people to

“Take medicines for your diseases”.

People were reluctant to do this at that time. The prophet also said;

 “God created no illness, but he established for it a cure, except for old age. When the antidote is applied, the patient will recover with the permission of God

This was good motivation for Muslims to develop and explore and also apply empirical laws. Razi (Rhazes), Ibn Sina (Avioenna), and Abu Ibn al-Haitham (Alhazen) were great scholars of the medieval period, excelling in the subject of medical sciences.Avioenna wrote the most widely studied  medical work of the medieval ages, the Al-Qanun Jil Tib, the book known as “Canon of Medicine”. It was reprinted more than twenty times in the last thirty years of the 15th century. It remained a standard textbook in the west for more than seven hundred years.Alhazen was the world’s greatest authority on optics, as we’ve read before.Ibn Katina was a Moorish Physician who died in 1369AD. He wrote an excellent treatises revealing the contagious characters of the plague, which ravaged Almaria, Spain in 1348-1349AD. Ibn Katina’s works were superior to any other of the age, and his book was edited and translated in Europe in the 15th century AD. Ibn Katina’s book also contained remedies to the plague, which were not known to Greek physicians, before and at the time.

In the field of surgery, Muslims were well ahead of their time. Modern surgical instruments, which you see nowadays, were actually devised by the Muslim surgeon, Al-Zahrawi, in the 10th century. He devised scalpels, bone saws, forceps, fine scissors for eye surgery and many of the two hundred medical instruments that a modern surgeon would recognize today.Al-Zahrawi also made the discovery that catgut-used for internal stitching-dissolves away naturally (a discovery made when his monkey ate his lute strings). He also discovered that catgut can be used to make medicine capsules.                                                           

In the 13th century, Muslim medic Ibn Nafis described the circulation of blood around the human body, three hundred years before William Harvey discovered it.

It was Muslim doctors who invented anesthetics of opium and alcohol mixes, and who also developed hollow needles to suck the cataracts out of eyes, a technique still used today.

Al-Razi was the inventor of “Seton” and the author of Judari wal Hasbak, an authentic book dealing with measles and small pox. 

 Muslims gave much attention to medicine and public health care. The first hospital was built in Baghdad in 706AD. Muslims used camel caravans as mobile hospitals, which moved from place to place. As Islam did not forbid it, Muslims used human cadavers to study the anatomy and physiology of the human body. This was to help students understand how the body functions. This empirical study helped surgery develop very quickly.

Al-Razi (Rhazes) was one of the most famous physicians of the middle ages. He stressed empirical observation, and was unrivaled as a diagnostician. He also wrote treatises on hygiene in hospitals.

Khalaf Abul-Qasim Al-Zahrawi was the famous surgeon of the 11th century, known in Europe for his book Kitab al-Tasrif (Concessio).I

bn Sina was probably the greatest physician until the modern era, and his work is still studied in the east.

Ibn Sina also contributed to pharmacology, with his book Kitab al-Shifa (Book of Healing). He also contributed to public health.

Every major city of the Islamic world had a number of excellent hospitals, some teaching hospitals, some specializing in a particular disease. Some also specialized in mental and emotional diseases. The ottomans were particularly noted for their building of hospitals and the hygiene practiced in them.

Hygiene and medical care still remains a major issue in everyday life, and if it wasn’t for these Muslim medics, doctors and physicians, we may never have reached the standard of health care that is practiced today.        GeographyMuslim scholars paid great attention to geography. Muslims concern to geography originated from their religion, Islam. The Qu’ran encourages people to travel the world, and see God’s signs and patterns.Islam requires at least every Muslim to know the position and direction of the Qiblah, the direction to the Ka’bah in Makkah, Saudi Arabia. It is a holy place for Muslims, and is where Muslims face to pray.Muslims also took long journeys for trading purposes, and to preach Islam, not to mention to do pilgrimage to God in Makkah.The extent of the Muslim empire enabled Muslims to compile geographical data, from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Among renowned geographers, Ibn Batuta and Ibn Khaldun stand out, because of their extensive travels and their accounts on their explorations and lengthy expeditions.Al-Idrisi produced a number of accurate maps of the world, including within them continents, trade routes and famous cities.

Al-Muqdishi was the first geographer to compile accurate maps in colour.

The Invention of the mariners compass was a great success, and revolutionized sea borne commerce. Undoubtedly, traces of the needle go back to Ancient China, but credit for putting it to work in the form of a mariners compass goes to the Muslims. It was probably made also for finding the direction of the Qiblah. The mariners compass enabled the Arabs to roam over the stormy seas in search of new lands, and additional markets for their goods.     

The unique shipping instrument, used to raise sunken ships from the sea bed, was invented by Abu Solet Umayya in 1134AD. It was a great help for salvage expeditions of the medieval times.

Muhammad Musa, a great geographer, and the inventor of photography, invented an instrument, with which the earth could be measured.                                                                                 

Because of Muslim navigators and their inventions, it was that Magellan was able to traverse the Cape of Good Hope.

Vasco Da Gama and Christopher Columbus had Muslim navigators aboard their ships, and without their help, they probably wouldn’t    have accomplished what they are famous for. 

Astronomy

 Muslims always had a special interest in astronomy. This was also linked to religion.The moon and sun has vital importance in a Muslims life, and this was the motivation that aroused great Muslim astronomers. By the moon a Muslim determines the beginning and end of the lunar calendar. By the sun a Muslim determines the times for prayer and fasting. Also, by astronomy, a Muslim can determine the correct direction of the Qiblah. The most precise and accurate solar calendar, even superior to the Julian calendar, was devised under the supervision of Umar Khayyam.                                                                    

The Qu’ran also contains references to astronomy.

“The heavens and the earth were ordered rightly, and were made subservient to man, including the sun, the moon, the stars, and day and night. Every heavenly body moves in an orbit assigned to it by God and never digresses, making the universe an orderly cosmos whose life and existence, diminution and expansion, are totally determined by the Creator.” [Qur'an 30:22]

It was these references to learn that inspired Muslims to study the heavens.Muslims integrated earlier works of the Indians, Persians and Greeks. They put these together into another synthesis. 

Ptolemy’s Almagest was translated and studied, then criticized. Many new stars were discovered. In their Arabic names, they are: Algol, Deneb, Betelgeuse, Rigel, Aldebaran and probably many more.

Ibn Firnas devised a chain of rings depicting the motions of stars and planets.

Astronomical tables were compiled, among them the Toledan tables, which were use byCopernicus, Tycho, Brahe and Kepler. Also compiled was Almanacs, another Arabic term. Other terms from Arabic are zenith, nadir, Albedo, Azimuth.

Muslims invented astronomical instruments, like the quadrant and the astrolabe. This not only led to developments in astronomy, but also in sea navigation, contributing to the European age of exploration.

Muslim astronomers were the first to establish observatories, and were also the first to use them. They were built in major cities of Islam, like Baghdad, Hamadan, Toledo, Maragha, Samarkand, and Istanbul. One was built by Hulagu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan in Mugharah, in Persia. Giralda or “The  tower of Seville” was the first observatory built in Europe. It was built for the observation of heavenly bodies, and was built under the supervision of the mathematician Jabit Ibn Afiah. It was later turned unto a belfry, by Christian conquers, who after expelling the Moors, didn’t know how to use it.Muslims invention of the astrolabe-which was an improvement of the Greek invention-was the most important invention until the invention of the telescope, in the 17th century.                                                                                                          

 The astrolabe was used to determine one’s latitude on the earth, using the position of the stars and the sun. This was especially important to travelers.                                                                                                                                                               

 Abul Hasan is said to have discovered and invented the telescope. He described it as a

“Tube, to the extremities of which were attached diopters”.

 Muslims were the first astronomers to challenge the long accepted ideas of Ptolemy and Aristotle, regarding eclipses, planetary orbits and the position of stars.Al-Farghani was one of the most distinguished  astronomers of the House of Wisdom. He wrote the book “Elements of Astronomy”. This book heavily discussed the motion and science of stars. It was translated into Latin in the12th century. The book exerted great influence on European astronomy. Al-Farghani’s big mistake was to support the widely held view that the earth is at the center of the universe, which he discussed in his book. Ptolemy was the first person to describe this wrongly held view, and it was later proved wrong. 

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi was a Persian astronomer who lived in the 10th century. He described-in 964- the Andromeda galaxy, our closest neighbour. He called it “The Little Cloud”. This was the first record of a star system, outside our galaxy. His book on stars was translated into many languages, and had a great influence also, on European astronomy.            

In Muslim Spain, there were many astronomers, one of which one was Al-Zarqali (from 1029 to 1080). He is known as Arzachel in Europe. He was the most famous astronomer of his age, and made a kind of astrolabe that measured the motion of stars. His work was translated into European languages, and was studied in Europe.In the 9th century, Muslims already knew that the earth was a sphere. The evidence, said Ibn Hazm, was that,

“Is that the Sun is always vertical to a particular spot on Earth”. This was five hundred years before Galileo discovered it.

Also, by the 9th century, Islamic astronomers reckoned that the circumference of the earth was 40,253.4 km, and this measurement was  less than two hundred km out!                                                   

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Muslim Inventions

December 24, 2007 at 10:18 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Muslim Inventions, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

Muslim Inventions

Soap, Cleanliness, Cosmetics, Shampoo,  Development of Paper, The Fountain Pen, Development of Cloth, Carpets, Garden, Glass,  Development of Chess, Coffee, Sherbet, 3 Course Meal, Pay Cheques, the Windmill, Vaccination,  Pointed Arch and the Crank-Shaft

Soap, Shampoo, Cleanliness and Cosmetics

The medieval times, was known for its lack of cleanliness and hygiene, leading to illnesses and diseases, and one of the Crusaders most striking characteristics were that they didn’t wash.                                                                                                             

Only a few Muslims, as early as the 7th century, had developed a sophisticated and hygienic way of life, and methods to keep themselves clean and away from diseases. In Islam, cleanliness is considered as half of a Muslims relegion. This was motivation for Muslims, also the fact that not keeping clean led to diseases and bad health.                       

The greatest thing done for cleanliness by Muslims, is probably the invention of soap. The credit for this goes to Muslim chemists. Before the invention of soap, people used oils to clean themselves, but all people didn’t have these oils.                                                                  

 Soap was made by mixing oil (usually olive oil) with al-qali (a salt like substance). This was then boiled to achieve the right mix, and left to harden, before used in homes and public baths.                                                                                                               

 Various recipies for soap were written by many Muslim chemists, icluding Al-Razi.  A recetly discovered manuscript dating back to the 13th century, containes the recipie to soap. The instructions are given here.

“Take some sesame oil, a sprinkle of potash, alkali and some lime, mix them all together and boil. When cooked, they are poured into moulds and left to set, leaving hard soap”.                                                                                       

One of the leading cosmetologists of the time, Al-Zahrawi, known to the west as Abulcassis, wrote a medical encyclopedia called Al-Tasrif. It was written in thirty volumes. Inside the 19th volume, there contains a whole chapter devoted to cosmetics. This was the first original contribution to cosmetology.

 Beutification of the body with purfumes etc was there way before Zahrawi, but Zahrawi considered cosmetics to be a branch of medication apart from beutification. Zahrawi’s contribution to the subject include ; under arm deodorants, hair removing sticks. hair care and also hand lotions. For turning blond hair to black, hair dyes are mentioned. Also, the benefts of suntan lotions are mentioned, also describing their ingredients in detail. His translations into Latin of his books were used as main university textbooks in many   European universities.                                                                                                                               

In the betification part of cosmetics, Zahrawi dealt with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There are many hadith’s (quotations of the prophet) of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him), refering to cleanliness, care of hair and other parts of the body. Al-Zahrawi described these all within the limitations of Islam.                                                                

“Adhan”, and oily substance, was used for medication and beautification. Zahrawi dealt with perfumed stocks, rolled up and pressed into special moulds. These were probably the earliest and nearest representations of present day lipsticks and deodorants.                                                                                                                              

The greeks contributed a lot to cosmetics, but that was in the beutification part. It is the hygiene aspects that realy matters and affects us. Islam brought forward the method of cleaning yourself, which is practiced by every muslim, prior to praying five times a day called wudu. It was also the muslims who introduced the quarintine of sick patients, so the illness  of the patient would not spread. This was done due to the discovery and whole idea of germs (also discovered by muslims). So out of all this, it was the muslims who contributed the most to the health part of cosmetics.                                                                                                                                                             

Shampoo,  was introduced to Britain by a Muslim, who opened the Mahmomed’s Indian Vapour Baths on the Brighton Seafront, in 1759. He was appointed the shampooing surgeon for King George IV and William IV.

Paper and the Fountain Pen

Although the first paper to write on was papyrus, made by the Egyptians, then a more advanced type of paper which was discovered and made by the Chinese, the secret of papermaking was discovered by the Muslims after capturing two Chinese papermakers in the battle of Talas in 751CE.

After the secret of papermaking was revealed, a more superior type of paper, with better quailty, was produced by the Muslims, like the paper we know today.

The first paper to be manufactured in Islamic countries was in 794 AD, in Baghdad by Yusuf Bin Omar. Muslims brought the paper to Europe and other countries.

The fountain pen was invented for the Sultan of Egypt in 953. He demanded a pen that wouldn’t leak and stain on his cloths or hands. The pen made for the Sultan, contained a miniature reservoir, as with modern pens, which held the ink and fed the nib, using a combination of gravity and capillary action.

Cloth and Carpets

Muslims, particularly in Spain, were skilled in cloth making. The Muslims cloth was renowned for its durability, and captured most of the big markets of the world. Muslims cloth was seen as the finest.

Thanks to the good quality cloth, combined with the artistic designs and the Muslims advanced weaving patterns, Muslims produced very fine and exquisite carpets and the designs on the carpets were very beautiful. Carpets were usually woven by nunerous home workers, with incredible precision and accuracy, and they were regarded as a part of paradise, by Muslims.

Comparing the Muslims homes and carpets to the Europeans homes of the time, Europeans homes were covered in rushes, that were virtually out of this world. When I mean virtually, I mean really out of this world. Carpets caught on quickly, and heres why. In England, as Erasmus recorded it, the floors were

“covered in rushes, occasionally renewed, but so imperfectly that the bottom layer is left undisturbed, sometimes for 20 years, harbouring expectoration, vomiting, the leakage of dogs and men, ale droppings, scraps of fish, and other abominations not fit to be mentioned”. 

Carpets were very renowned and prized by the Europeans and the English, so much that Queen Eleanor, the Castilian bride of King Edward I, brought Andulsian carpets to England, as part of her dowry, in 1255. The Persians were renowned for carpet making, and are still considered the best in the world.

The Garden

Although the garden existed for a long time, it was the Arab Muslims that spread the notion that the garden could be a place of peace, tranquility, beauty and meditation. Flowers that originated from Muslim gardens include the carnation and the tulip. In medieval Europe, gardens were only a place to grow herbs and food.

Mainly after the 8th century onwards, these heavenly gardens spread to India and other Middle Eastern places. The Abbasids created geometrical designs for their flower beds, to provide seclusion from the outside worlds. These magni- ficent garde- ns also           contained fountains and shallow canals. Examples of these gardens still can be found in Islamic Persia, Sicily and India, in the gardens of the Taj Mahal, and in the Alhambra Palace in Granada, Spain.                                           

The first appearance of these beautiful gardens in Europe, after Muslim Spain, was first in Toledo, then in Seville around the 11th century. These gardens were used for the testing of new plants brought from the Middle East, into a new climate. The gardens were also generally for pleasure and meditation. It was only five centuries after that these beautiful gardens were introduced to the rest of Europe, first to the Universities    of Italy. Examples of these beautiful Muslim gardens can now be seen in all of Europe, from the Stibbert garden in Florence to the Royal Pavilion in Brighton, England.                                                                      

The list of heavenly garden produced by the early Muslims was very, very long. Just to give you a glimpse of what it was like, Nisban (in Mesopotamia) was said to have 40,000 gardens, containing fruit trees and orchards, while an even bigger number resided in Damascus, a number of  110,000. In Venice, gardens and orchards were criss-crossed with mile after mile of canals.                                                                                                           

The Qu’ran repeatedly describes gardens, to be a place of beauty and serenity, contemplation and reflection. Nature, trees, animals are a blessed gift from Allah, and are a sign of his greatness. Gardens have an elevated status, in a Muslims mind for Islam permits anyone to use and change nature according to the ethical ways and limitations of Islam. Thus gardens    were designed to be sympathetic to nature. The garden is seen as a place of wonder and enchantment.                              

BUT,

It is said that the Greeks made the Garden as a place of beauty and meditation and the evidence is;

In the Odyssey, Book V Homer describes the garden of Calypso:                                                                 

 “And round about the cave there was a wood blossoming, alder and poplar and sweet-smelling cypress. And therein roosted birds long of wing, owls and falcons and chattering sea-crows, which have their business in the waters. And lo, there about the hollow cave trailed a gadding garden vine, all rich with clusters. And fountains four set orderly were running with clear water, hard by one another, turned each to his own course. And all around soft meadows bloomed of violets and parsley, yea, even a deathless god who came thither might wonder at the sight and be glad at heart.”

 “The Odyssey” is a mythalogical story (i.e not real), so there is no evidence that something like this was in real life.

ALSO ;

 Aristotle’s Academia was held in a grove of olive trees, considered to be a sacred space.

This is only talking about a specific grove of olive trees, and there is no mention of beauty and meditation in it.

 Glass                                                                        

It was Ibn Firnas, who is credited to have making glass from stone, after experimenting with rock crystal. He constructed his home as a sort of planetarium. In his house, one could see the stars, clouds and also lightning. 

Chess

A form of chess was played in India called “Chaturanga”, which consisted of four players. From there, it came to Persia, where it was further developed to only two players. The name given to chess there was “Chatrang”. It is believed that the rules of “Chaturanga” and “Chatrang” were similar. From there, chess became popular in                                                               

Islamic Countries, and from there also developed to “Shatranj”. There is some controversy about chess in Islam, because some people consider it to be “haraam” (Arabic for “forbidden”). There is a “Hadith” (Arabic for narration of the Prophet) saying that :

“He who played chess is like one who dyes his hand with the flesh and blood of a swine (pig).”                                                                                                                               

But in 638 A.D. the Caliph (successor to Muhammad) Omar allowed chess among Muslims. It was banned again about 1000 A.D. in Egypt!In about the 8th century, chess spread into Europe and was a favorite game of King Charlemagne of France .    

Coffee, the Sherbet and the 3 Course Meals 

The first coffee was made by a man named Khalid. The story goes that he was tending sheep, when he noticed that his sheep grew bigger and livelier after eating a certain berry. He boiled the berries, and thus the first coffee was made.Beans were exported from Ethiopia to Yemen, and drank by Sufi’s to stay awake all night and pray on special occasions. This was the first record of the drink.It had arrived in Mecca and Turkey in the late 15th century, from where it found its way to Venice, in 1645. Coffee arrived in Britain in 1650, when a coffee house was opened in Lombard Street in London by a Turk, named Pasqua Rosee. The Arabic “qahwa” became the Turkish “kahve”, then the Italian “caffé”, and finally the British “coffee”.                                                             

Muslims developed a variety of juices to make their “sharab” (sherbet). Their sherbet was a soft juice drink of crushed fruit, flowers and herbs. It existed as one of the most famous drinks of all time, winning the hearts of people like Lord Byron. “Sharab” is where the Italians “sorbetto” comes from, where the French “sorbet” comes from, and then finally the English “Sherbet” is derived from. There are a number of names, and is associated with a number of traditions. Sherbet is also now produced in  America all the way to India. Medieval Muslim sources contain recipes for drink syrups that can be kept out of the refrigerator for weeks and even months.

The concept of the three course meal was brought to Cordoba in the 9th Century, from Iraq. The concept included having soup, followed by fish or some meat, then for desert fruit and nuts. It was brought to Cordoba by Ali Ibn Nafi (also known as Ziryab-Blackbird). He also introduced crystal glasses that were invented by a Muslim.

Pay Cheques 

The modern cheque, that we know today in derived from the Arabic word “saqq”. This means a written vow to pay for the goods when they are delivered. This was very good and sophisticated, as it meant that Muslims didn’t have to take money with them across dangerous terrain, avoiding robberies. In the 9th century, Muslim businessman could cheque in China drawn on his bank in Baghdad.

The Windmill 

The Arabian Desert dried up each year, and breakneck tasks had to be preformed in drawing water, and grinding grain, which had to be done by hand. This had to be done in order to survive. A  wind blew steadily in the Arabian Desert, the only power source that the desert could offer. The wind blew for months at a time. A clever Muslim inventor, in 634, built the first windmill, which consisted of six or twelve sails covered in fabric or palm leaves, catching the wind and turning the huge mill stones wheel, which ground the corn. The first windmill was not seen in Europe for another five hundred years.


Vaccination  

The west has the wrongly held view that Jenner and Pasteur invented inoculation (protection from viruses). The thing is he didn’t. Vaccination was devised in the Muslim world. Children in Turkey were vaccinated with cowpox to fight the deadly smallpox and vaccination was brought to Europe from Turkey by the wife of the English ambassador to Istanbul in 1724, exactly seventy two years before Jenner and Pasteur discovered it.
A coin has been minted in honour of the discovery of innoculation in the Muslim World.


 Pointed Arch  

The pointed arch, much stronger than the round one, enabled a much bigger, higher and more complex and grander building to be produced. This can be seen in  on the Europe’s Gothic cathedrals, an invention borrowed from Muslim architecture. Other borrowings from Muslim inventions included ribbed vaulting, rose windows and dome building techniques. Europe’s castles also copied from the Islamic world’s castles and forts with arrow slits, battlements, a barbican and parapets. Square towers and keeps gave way to more easily defended round ones. Henry V’s castle architect was a Muslim.         

Crank-Shaft   

The crank-shaft, created by the Muslim genius Al-Jazari, central too many machines of the modern age, translated rotary motion to linear motion. It is also central to the combustion engine. This is one of the most useful and clever mechanical inventions of humankind, and without this invention, many machines could not be created. Al-Jazari originally created the crank-shaft to raise water for irrigation. Al-Jazari also invented the use of valves and a piston, devised some mechanical clocks driven by weights and water, and was the “Father of Mechanics”. His 1206 Book of Knowledge of ingenious Mechanical Inventions verifies  this completely. He also invented the combination lock, among his other fifty inventions.        

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Weapons, Flight and Watches

December 24, 2007 at 10:07 pm · Filed under 3805761, Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , ,

Weapons, Flight and Watches

Gun, Gunpowder, Rockets, Torpedoes, Attempts at Flight, Parachute, Pendulum and Watches 

Gun and Gunpowder

Claims of the discovery of gunpowder are made by the Chinese and English but the claim of the Arab Muslims is the definite strongest. The English consider Roger Bacon to be the “Father of Gunpowder”, but Roger Bacon himself never claimed it.

Also, there is controversy surrounding this. It is thought that the German friar Berthold Schwarz handed down the discovery of gunpowder. Roger Bacon’s notes were vague and Berthold Schwarz’s notes clearly imply that he handed down the discovery to him.

The Chinese were the inventors of crude saltpetre, which can be dug up or can be scraped of cellar walls, but it cannot explode, for it has to be refined. Refined saltpetre is one of the three ingredients of refined saltpetre, charcoal and sulphur used in gunpowder, and is the strongest.  

Mir Fatehullah Khan is known to be the inventor of gunpowder and the gun. Guns were being used by Arabs in 1340AD in the defence of Al-Bashur, when under siege by Franzdol. In Khans book Arab Civilization, he writes

“Gunpowder was a great invention of the Arabs, who were already using guns”.

The statement is further backed up by Mr. Scott in his well known book History of the Moorish Empire in Spain.Recently discovered texts also contain the word gunpowder, although the text doesn’t suggest that the word “gunpowder” is an explosive substance.

Some people think it might be just two words “gun” and “powder” put together although the only powder used in a gun is the explosive substance.      

The Arabs worked out that crude saltpetre can be refined using potassium nitrate, and the earliest known reference to the refining of crude saltpetre appears in an Arabian text dated 1240. Therefore it is unlikely that before this date, gunpowder was discovered.

The first rocket and torpedoes to be made were by the Muslims. Using the refined saltpetre, Muslims invented incendiary devices, which terrified the opposing crusaders. By the 15th century, the Muslims had invented both rockets, and torpedoes. The rockets were called a

“self moving and combusting egg”,

 whilst the torpedoes were called

“a self propelled pear shaped bomb, with a spear at the front, which impaled itself in enemy ships, then blew up.”

After crusaders saw Muslim warriors wearing dual layer shirts, the process of quilting was introduced to Europe. The quilted shirts contained straw between them, and were effective in battle and also good for insulation. This helped crusaders avoid chafing, resulting from their metal armour. Quilting soon became a cottage industry, in cold places like Britain and Holland.                                                                                                                            

Attempts on Flight and the Invention of the Parachute

Abbas Ibn Firnas was the first person to have the first and most successful flight, for that period of time.                                                                                                                     

He was born in Korah Takrna near Ronda. He lived in Cordoba, in Islamic Spain, and studied chemistry, physics, astronomy and was a poet and engineer. According to Phillip Hitti,

“Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flight”.

Abbas Ibn Firnas                made several attempts to build a flying machine. In 852, he built a glider made of loose cloth stiffened with wooden struts. But didn’t achieve his task. The loosened cloth slowed his fall, creating the first parachute. He got off with minor injuries.                                                                                                                                

In 875AD at the age of 65, Ibn Firnas built another glider, consisting of a suit of silk and eagle feathers. Observed by a large crowd, Ibn Firnas launched himself off a mountain, and glided for a considerable length and for ten minutes, before making a landing. But that’s when it went wrong.

Because of the lack of good observation, he failed to notice that birds land on their tails, and he hadn’t equipped his flying suit with a tail. Also he didn’t have the right movements to land on a tail. Ibn Firnas got off lightly, but hurt his back. He died twelve years later, in 888AD, after an ongoing struggle with his injury.                                              

Westerners teach their children about the Wright brothers, while people in Islamic countries tell their children about Ibn Firnas. Although his flight wasn’t powered, he was one thousand years before the Wright brothers, and also before Leonardo Da Vinci, so we consider him the first man to attempt a scientific approach to flight.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   In In honour of Ibn Firnas, the Libyans produced a stamp in his honour; the Iraqi’s built a statue in honour of Ibn Firnas on the way to the Ibn Firnas Airport (which is north of Baghdad. Also the Ibn Firnas crater on the moon is named after him).

Watches and Pendulum                                                                                              

The pendulum was invented by Ibn Yunus in the 10th century, a genius in science who lived during the time of the Fatimid monarchs of Egypt, Aziz Billah and Hakim bi-Amr-Illah. The invention of the pendulum led to the discovery of measuring time by the pendulums oscillations, on which Ibn Yunus studied and documented. Ibn Yunus’s work “Akbar al-Hakimi” was known to be the masterpiece on the subject, replacing Ptolemy’s work. It was translated by Umar Khayyam into Persian.                                         

The pendulums use in clocks, was introduced in the 17th century, after observations made by Galileo.   The invention of the watch was a great and important success and discovery. The first watch was made by Kutbi, who was a renowned watch maker of his time.

Whilst the reign of Harun al-Rashid, the use of the watch became very common. He once gave a watch to the French emperor Charlemagne. At that time, in Europe, watches were seen as novel and the object was regarded as a thing of wonder. The construction of water clocks in Islamic countries was quite common, and a European writer backed this up by saying;

“The Arabs were skilful in the construction of clepsydras and water clocks with automata,”    

A variety of weight-driven, mechanical clocks were produced in Moorish Spain. Some were large and small and the designs included clocks with epicyclical and segmental gears, and even a mercury escapement.

In the well known university of Baghdad “Mustansariya”, there was a clock with a blue dial, depicting the sky, and the sun continually moved over it depicting the time. Maulana Shibli, the famous Urdu litterateur, described a watch of Damascus in the following words:

 ”The watch was kept in the door of a wall. It contained copper plates and twelve doors. There was an Eagle (Bat) standing in the first and the last plate. At the end of each hour, these two eagles lay down on the copper plates and hence a sound was produced to show the time. At twelve all the doors were closed. This system was being repeated continuously”    

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Muslim Optician: Ibn al-Haitham

December 24, 2007 at 9:51 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , , ,

 Ibn al-Haitham 965-1040CE

Mathematician, astronomer, optician, physicist and Father of Optics 

Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haitham known to the west as Alhazen was born in 965 CE in Basra (Iraq). He is sometimes known as Al-Basri referring to his birth place.He received his education in Basra and Baghdad and later traveled to Egypt and Spain.

Ibn al-Haitham’s contributions to scientific methods were outstanding, and is known as the “Father of optics” through his extensive contributions in the field of optics. He was also one of the most eminent physicist’s who ever lived.

On one account of Ibn al-Haitham’s career, he was summoned to Egypt by thecaliph Hakim to regulate the flooding of the River Nile. After his work made him aware that the task was impractical, he feared the caliph’s anger and feigned (pretended) madness, while being kept under house arrest. During this time he wrote very many important mathematical articles.During Ibn al-Haitham’s time in Spain-where he spent most of his life- he contributed most to the field’s of mathematics, physics, medicine, scientific methods and especially optics. 

Ibn al-Haitham’s Work 

Ibn al-Haitham conducted experiments on the movement of light and colours, optical illusions and reflections. He also examined what happens when light passes through one transparent medium (air and water) into another medium (this is called refraction) and discovered the laws of refraction.    

Ibn al-Haitham also carried out the first experimentson the dispersion of light into its seven constituent colours, when the light passes through a prism. This was later discovered by Isaac Newton who normally takes all the credit for this magnificent discovery.In Ibn al-Haitham’s research in catoptrics (it is concerned with the objects to see something with e.g. magnifying glass) he focused on spherical and parabolic mirrors (a mirror looking like a rugby ball) and spherical aberration (the non convergence of rays).He made the important discovery and observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant. His catoptrics contains the important problem known as Alhazen’s problem. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. He also solved the shape of an aplantic surface for reflection.                                                    

In Ibn al-Haitham’s experiments with spherical segments (glass vessels filled with water), he came very close to discovering the theory of magnifying lenses (the magnifying glass and how it works). This theory was developed in Italy three centuries later, and it took another three centuries before the law of sines was proposed by Snell and Descartes. In one of Ibn al-Haitham’s books, Kitab-al-Manazir he had written what the colours of the sunset were. He also dealt with the various physical phenomena like rainbows, eclipses, and shadows and speculated on the physical nature of light.                                                                    

All the medieval and western writers on optics like Roger Bacon and Pole Witelo (Vitellio) based their work on Ibn al-Haitham’s book the `Opticae Thesaurus`. Ibn al-Haitham’s work also influenced Leonardo da Vinci and Johann Kepler. Ibn al-Haitham was the first to describe accurately different parts of the eye and gave a scientific explanation to the process of vision. He contradicted Ptolemy’s and Euclid’s theory that the eye sends out visual rays to the object looked at while Ibn al-Haitham’s theory said that the object looked at sends light rays to your eye. He derived this from his common observations. He gave logical arguments such as;                                                                 

  • The eye is dazzled or even injured if we look at a very bright light or,
  • How could a ray proceeding from our eyes reach the distant stars the instant we open them.

Ibn al-Haitham developed a well argued and logical theory about the eye.Ibn al-Haitham attempted to explain binocular vision and gave a correct explanation of why the sun and moon apparently seem increased in size near the horizon although Roger Bacon gave credit of this discovery to Ptolemy.Ibn al-Haitham deduced that the homogeneous atmosphere or there is no change in atmosphere above earth for 55 miles.        

Ibn al-Haitham is known for the   earliest use of the camera obscura and through all thisextensive research and discoveries, Ibn al-Haitham is considered as the “Father of optics”Ibn al-Haitham’s contribution to mathematics and physics is also very extensive.In maths he developed analytical geometry by establishing a link between geometry and algebra.He is also credited to have invented  the pinhole camera, but the idea was later credited to Della Porta for rediscribing how the camera works.

In physics Ibn al-Haitham studied the mechanics of the motion of the body.Ibn al-Haitham was the first to propose that the body moves perpetually (continually) unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This is the first law of motion which was later discovered by Galileo.Ibn al-Haitham discussed the theory of attraction between masses which is; Mass 1 times mass 2/(forward slash represents divide) Distance between both masses squared  

It appears that Ibn al-Haitham was also aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity. He also discovered that twilight stops or begins when the sun is at 19 degrees and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis.I

bn al-Haitham’s Books 

Ibn al-Haitham wrote more than two hundred books, but sadly very few survived.His monumental treatise on optics survived through Latin translation and during the middle Ages his books on cosmology were translated into Latin, Hebrew and other European Languages.

In his book Mizan al-Hikmah (Book of the Balance of Wisdom), Ibn al-Haitham discussed the density of the atmosphere and developed a relation between it and height.   He also discussed atmospheric refraction in his book.Ibn al-Haitham also wrote commentaries on Aristotle, Galen, Euclid and Ptolemy and also wrote a book on evolution which is still useful and his ideas are still very worth reading today.

Beer and Meddler in their famous work Der Mond 1837 mention one of the surface features of the moon after Alhazen It is the name of a ring-shaped plain to the west of the hypothetical Mare Crisium in Section No. 12. Ibn al-Haitham’s extensive writings influenced many western intellectuals such as Roger Bacon, John Pecham, Witelo and Johannes Keples.       

 Works by Ibn al-Haitham on geometrical subject  were discovered in Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford and in the library of Leiden. 

Legacy 

Ibn al-Haitham left a legacy that is un-believable. In his writings you can find a clear eplaination of scientific methods developed and applied by the Muslims. His observations on physical phenomena  and their scientific theory was a major breakthrough in scientic methodology and history. His influence in physical sciences and optics in paricular is still held in high esteem and his ideas are still heralded in this new era.

Ibn al-Haitham is featured on the Iraqi 10,000  Dinars banknote issued in 2003. The asteroid 59239 Alhazen was also named in honour of Ibn al-Haitham. Also Iran’s  largest laser research facility located in the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran, its headquaters based  in Tehran is named after Ibn al-Haitham as well.

Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haitham, the father of optics, a very successful and famous mathematician, astronomer, optician and physicist died in 1040 possibly in Cairo, Egypt.  

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Muslim Matematician: Al-Khawarizmi

December 24, 2007 at 8:50 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

 Al-Khawarizmi 780-850 CE

Mathematician, astronomer, geographer and Father of Algebra 

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi was born at Kath part of Khwarizm (modern day Kheva, Uzbekistan) south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia. Kath is now buried under sand. His last name Khawarizmi refers to where he was born Very little is know about his early life, and the exact dates of his birth and death remain unknown, but we know he was born around 780 CE.

Al Khawarizmi’s family migrated to a place south of Baghdad when summoned by the caliph Al-Ma’mun and was given the job of being the court astronomer. It is said that he flourished under Al-Ma’mun through 813-833. Al-Khawarizmi and his colleagues the Banu Musa were scholars at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for most of their life. Their tasks included translating Greek manuscripts which they may have also studied and to write on algebra, geometry and astronomy.  

Al Khawarizmi’s Books

Al Khawarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians, astronomers and geographers who ever lived. He was the founder of several basic principles of mathematics. In the words of Phillip Hitti about Al Khawarizmi, he said;“He influenced mathematics through to a greater extent than any other medieval writer.”

Under Al Khawarizmi, the development of mathematics went to a great extent like the fact that in his book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah  he gave some solutions to a few linear and quadratic equations such as x2 + 10x = 39, commonly used by later writers. Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah (Book of Calculations, restoration and reduction) is where the word algebra (Al Jabr in Arabic) is derived from.Adelard of Bath’s book the “liber ysagogarum alchorismi in artem astronomicam a magistro A. (Adelard of Bath) compositus” includes within it things about arithmetic, geometry, music (a part of mathematics at that time) and astronomy. The book is more like or probably a summary of Al Khawarizmi’s work rather than original worksIn the twelfth century Gerard of Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the algebra of Al Khawarizmi into Latin. Mathematicians and universities all over the world used Al Khawarizmi’s works until the sixteenth century. Several of Al Khawarizmi’s books were translated into Latin in the early twelfth century. One of those books on arithmetic Kitab al Jam’a wal –Tafreeq bil Hisaab al Hindi (“The Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation”)were lost in Arabic but remained preserved in Latin. Translations into European languages and Latin introduced a whole new science, completely unknown to the Europeans and the western world till then.                  

 Al Khawarizmi’s geographic book  Kitab Surat-al-Ard  (Book on the appearance of the                                                                        Earth) and his maps  were also translated into european languages.                                                                                                                                                                       

 Al Khawarizmi’s works

Al Khawarizmi explained the use of zero, which was developed by the Arabs and he also developed the decimal system. He introduced the Indian system of numerals, commonly known as the Arabic numeral system which through his work was introduced first to the Arabs then through translations, was introduced to the west. He perfected the representations of conic sections and developed the error of two sections which practically led him to the theory of differentiation.  He also developed at length several arithmetic procedures including procedures on fractions and developed the trigonometrical tables containing sine functions which were probably extended to tangent functions by Maslmah the son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.        

  Al Khawarizmi’s works on astronomy and geography  include original works on the sundial a book called Kitab al-Rukhmat that Al khawarizmi wrote but which has been lost, a book on the jewish calender called Istikraj Tarikh al-Yahud, two other books on the astrolobe and  original works on clocks.Al Khawarizmi revised and corrected Ptolmey’s theories on geography and corrected  Ptolmey’s map of the world.He also developed the astronomical tables, causing a significant development in the field of astronomy, on which he also wrote a book. These astronmoncal tables were translated into european languges then were later translated into chinese. Al Khawarizmi is well known for the collaboration in the degree measurements that was ordered by Ma’mun al-Rashid  directed for measuring the volume and circumference of the earth. The influence of Al Khawarizmi on the world of science and mathematics is very great, leaving behind a legacy that amazes the world even know. If it wasn’t for Al Khawarizmi’ mathematics would have never had flourished as greatly as it did under him. His contribution and systematic way of working has held high repute, through the centuries since then.

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al Khawarizmi the great mathematician, astronomer and geographer died in 850.                                                                                                     

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Muslim Geographer: Al-Idrisi

December 24, 2007 at 6:26 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , ,

Al-Idrisi 1099-1166 or 1180AD

Map of Al-Idrisi – Note: Muslims placed south at the top of their maps.

Geographer and Cartographer

 Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani also known by his short name, Al-Sharif Al Idrisi Al Qurtubi, was born in Ceuta, Spain in 1099AD. Al-Idrisi received his education in Cordoba, Spain (Al Andalus). He flourished at the Norman Court of King Roger in Palermo, where he spent most of his life. He was also a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (Peace and blessings be upon him).Al-Idrisi is regarded as the greatest geographer and cartographer of the middle ages.

As all Muslim geographers, Al-Idrisi traveled to many distant places, including Europe, to collect geographic data about the world.Geographers before Al-Idrisi correctly measured the surface of the earth, for example Al Hawqal, another geographer, in the late 11th century produced a map of the world, while other maps were also available. Arab manuscripts were also available and much older Greek charts and sailing manuscripts as well. This, Al-Idrisi combined with his own information gained from his personal experience. From this, Al-Idrisi became famous for his knowledge, especially attracting attention from sea navigators and military planners because their ships and navigators from the north sea’s, Atlantic and Mediterranean all passed through the Mediterranean passing Sicily, where Al-Idrisi spent most of his life.  

  Al-Idrisi’s fame soon reached the court of King Roger, the Norman of Sicily, who invited him to produce an up-to-date map of the world. It should be mentioned that Sicily was under Muslim control before King Roger, and Muslim works were freely available to transport to Europe through Latin West.One of Al-Idrisi’s most famous works was composed of a circular world map of pure silver weighing approximately 400 kilograms and precisely on it recorded the seven continents with trade routes, lakes, rivers, major plains and mountains. His map can be seen on the next page.

Al-Idrisi’s Work and Books

It took several centuries for Europe to make use for  Al-Idrisi’s work, and Christopher Columbus probably wouldn’t have found America if he hadn’t used Al-Idrisi’s maps. Al-Idrisi was totally convinced that earth was round, and for some people who said that water of the oceans cannot remain on a curved surface, he gave an answer saying,

 “An equilibrium which experiences no variation, keeps these bodies of water in place.”

Using all the information compiled by himself, Al-Idrisi wrote his most famous book, Al-Kitab al-Rujari” (Roger’s Book) in 1154 in honour of his patron King Roger, which is also entitled “Mushtaq fi Ikhtiraq al-Afaq” (The delight of him who desires to journey through the climates). This is the name that King Roger gave to the book. It is virtually an encyclopedia containing geographical information on Asia, Africa and also Europe.

Al-Idrisi also compiled another geographical encyclopedia, larger than his previous one, named “Rawd-Unnas wa-Nuzhat al-Nafs” (Pleasure of men and delight of souls) also known as “Kitab al- Mamalik wa al-Masalik.” It contained knowledge on the Niger, Sudan and he also named the precise location of the head waters of the Nile to be in East Africa in the “Jibaal al-Qamar” (Mountains of the moon), which can be clearly seen on his map.

 It is amazing that the precise location of the head waters of the River Nile were not discovered by the Europeans until the 19th century and it is remarkable of the accuracy of the location given by Al Idrisi.                                                                                                                                

In addition to geography, he also contributed to the science  of medical plants. His major contribution in this field lies in his medicinal plants as presented in his books, especially Kitab al-Jami-li-Sifat Ashtat al-Nabatat. Al-Idrisi reviewed and made all the material available on the subject of plants, and also associated drugs available to him from Muslim scientists and added it to his collection of research from his travels.Al-Idrisi contributed his knowledge to the subject of botany and gave the names of the drugs in Syriac, Greek, Persian, Hindi, Latin and Berber. 

Al-Idrisi-besides botany and geography- also wrote on fauna, zoology and therapeutic aspects.Al-Idrisi’s work was soon translated into Latin and his books remained popular in the east and west for many centuries. His maps                                                                       remained available in libraries remained available in libraries of European schools of navigation, and the Portuguese and  Spanish made use of them before setting out to the Atlantic Ocean (The Sea of darkness).

One of Al-Idrisi’s books published in Rome in 1619 was an abridged version, but the translator never gave credit for the works to Al-Idrisi.

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Ibn Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani, the greatest geographer and cartographer of his time, died in 1166 or 1180 AD. His exact date of his death is not confirmed.                           

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Muslim Scientist: Jabir Ibn Haiyan

December 24, 2007 at 6:19 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , ,

Jabir Ibn Haiyan 721-803CE

Practioner of Medicine, Alchemist and Father of Chemistry                                                      

Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Haiyan, generally known by his short name Jabir Ibn Haiyan, was also known as the alchemist Geber of the middle ages.

Although we know that Jabir Ibn Haiyan lived during the 700s, his date of birth remains uncertain, but it is probably 721 in Tus, Iran.In his early days, Jabir Ibn Haiyan was looked after by the vizier Barmaki, during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid.Jabir Ibn Haiyan practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufah (in present day Iraq) at around 776CE.Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s major contributions lie in the field of chemistry. He evolved modern chemistry as a science from alchemy by introduced experimental investigation into alchemy (derived from the word al-Kimiya), from this creating the momentum for modern chemistry.

Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s work

Jabir Ibn Haiyan emphasized experimentation and development of methods to achieve reproducibility in his own work and in others work. He also devoted his efforts to basic chemical methods and studied various mechanisms of chemical reactions. He specified that specific quantities of various substances are involved in chemical reactions; therefore he paved the way to the law of constant proportions.Jabir Ibn Haiyan discovered a range of minerals and acids including nitric, citric, and hydrochloric and tartaric acids.Jabir Ibn Haiyan gave several contributions to basic alchemy involving large preparation of new compounds.Jabir Ibn Haiyan was involved in the development of several chemical methods and also developed a number of chemical processes. 

His achievements in the field of chemistry also include the preparation of various metals, the development of steel, the dyeing of cloth, the tanning of leather, the varnishing of waterproof cloth, the use of manganese dioxide in the process of glass making, the development of an aqua reia to dissolve gold, the prevention of rusting, the use of lettering in gold and the identification of paints, greases etc.

Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s greatest invention is probably the alambic (apparatus used in distillation), which made the process of distillation systematic and easy.As well as perfecting the process and technique of distillation, he also perfected the techniques of crystallization, calcinations, sublimation and evaporation. Jabir Ibn Haiyan also developed several instruments for conducting these experiments, as mentioned above.Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s experimental ideas paved the way for the classification of metals, nonmetals and volatile substances.    

He also discussed the three distinct type of substances based on their properties;

1)   Spirits, i.e., those which vaporize on heating like camphor, arsenic and ammonium,

2)   Metals e.g. gold, silver, lead, copper, iron etc and

3)   Compounds that can be converted into powders.

Although and alchemist, Jabir Ibn Haiyan did not seem to pursue the preparation of noble metals, instead he gave more attention to the development of basic chemical methods and studied the mechanisms of chemical reactions in themselves thus-as mentioned before-chemistry evolved out of the depths of the legends of alchemy, forming now a well known science.Jabir invented several technical terms, such as alkali, which are found today in various European languages and have become part of scientific vocabulary.

Jabir Ibn Haiyan was mostly interested in experimentation and was well known for his accuracy. Because of his great contribution and effort put forward by him in the field of chemistry, he is considered as the “Father of Modern Chemistry”, thus becoming the pioneer of applied science.

Other than chemistry and alchemy, Jabir Ibn Haiyan was also interested in medicine and astronomy, to which he also contributed greatly. 

Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s books

Jabir Ibn Haiyan was famous for writing over one hundred monumental treatises, of which twenty two are on alchemy and chemistry.His treatises on chemistry include Kitab al-Kimya and Kitab al-Sab’eem, both of which were translated into Latin in the Middle Ages and other European languages.

Kitab al-Kimya’s translation was published by Englishman Roberts of Chester in 1144 CE under the title “The Book of the Composition of Alchemy”.His second book Kitab al-Sab’eem was translated by Gerard of Cremona.Some of Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s books were taken to Spain and translated from Arabic into Latin in about 1150 by Hugues de Santalla in Toledo. Berthelot translated some of Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s books, known by the titles “Book of Kingdom”, “Book of Eastern Mercury” and “The Book of the Balances”. It is obvious that he didn’t use the correct titles for Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s books.

Richard Russel an English man, translated and published another of Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s works under the title of “Sum of Perfection”. He described Jabir Ibn Haiyan as “Geber, the most famous Arabian Prince and Philosopher”.                    

With these translations into European languages, Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s work became famous for many centuries and influenced the development of modern science, for a period of time as well.Only a few of Jabir Ibn Haiyan’s books have been edited and published, while many others are still preserved in Arabic, and are yet to be translated.

 Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Haiyan, practioner of medicine, alchemist and the “Father of chemistry” died in 803CE in the city of Kufah, where he had practiced his occupation, in present day Iraq. 

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