Posts Tagged history

Muslim Matematician: Al-Khawarizmi

December 24, 2007 at 8:50 pm · Filed under Famous Muslims, Muslim History, Science ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

 Al-Khawarizmi 780-850 CE

Mathematician, astronomer, geographer and Father of Algebra 

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi was born at Kath part of Khwarizm (modern day Kheva, Uzbekistan) south of the Aral Sea in Central Asia. Kath is now buried under sand. His last name Khawarizmi refers to where he was born Very little is know about his early life, and the exact dates of his birth and death remain unknown, but we know he was born around 780 CE.

Al Khawarizmi’s family migrated to a place south of Baghdad when summoned by the caliph Al-Ma’mun and was given the job of being the court astronomer. It is said that he flourished under Al-Ma’mun through 813-833. Al-Khawarizmi and his colleagues the Banu Musa were scholars at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for most of their life. Their tasks included translating Greek manuscripts which they may have also studied and to write on algebra, geometry and astronomy.  

Al Khawarizmi’s Books

Al Khawarizmi was one of the greatest mathematicians, astronomers and geographers who ever lived. He was the founder of several basic principles of mathematics. In the words of Phillip Hitti about Al Khawarizmi, he said;“He influenced mathematics through to a greater extent than any other medieval writer.”

Under Al Khawarizmi, the development of mathematics went to a great extent like the fact that in his book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah  he gave some solutions to a few linear and quadratic equations such as x2 + 10x = 39, commonly used by later writers. Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah (Book of Calculations, restoration and reduction) is where the word algebra (Al Jabr in Arabic) is derived from.Adelard of Bath’s book the “liber ysagogarum alchorismi in artem astronomicam a magistro A. (Adelard of Bath) compositus” includes within it things about arithmetic, geometry, music (a part of mathematics at that time) and astronomy. The book is more like or probably a summary of Al Khawarizmi’s work rather than original worksIn the twelfth century Gerard of Cremona and Roberts of Chester translated the algebra of Al Khawarizmi into Latin. Mathematicians and universities all over the world used Al Khawarizmi’s works until the sixteenth century. Several of Al Khawarizmi’s books were translated into Latin in the early twelfth century. One of those books on arithmetic Kitab al Jam’a wal –Tafreeq bil Hisaab al Hindi (“The Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation”)were lost in Arabic but remained preserved in Latin. Translations into European languages and Latin introduced a whole new science, completely unknown to the Europeans and the western world till then.                  

 Al Khawarizmi’s geographic book  Kitab Surat-al-Ard  (Book on the appearance of the                                                                        Earth) and his maps  were also translated into european languages.                                                                                                                                                                       

 Al Khawarizmi’s works

Al Khawarizmi explained the use of zero, which was developed by the Arabs and he also developed the decimal system. He introduced the Indian system of numerals, commonly known as the Arabic numeral system which through his work was introduced first to the Arabs then through translations, was introduced to the west. He perfected the representations of conic sections and developed the error of two sections which practically led him to the theory of differentiation.  He also developed at length several arithmetic procedures including procedures on fractions and developed the trigonometrical tables containing sine functions which were probably extended to tangent functions by Maslmah the son of the Umayyad caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan.        

  Al Khawarizmi’s works on astronomy and geography  include original works on the sundial a book called Kitab al-Rukhmat that Al khawarizmi wrote but which has been lost, a book on the jewish calender called Istikraj Tarikh al-Yahud, two other books on the astrolobe and  original works on clocks.Al Khawarizmi revised and corrected Ptolmey’s theories on geography and corrected  Ptolmey’s map of the world.He also developed the astronomical tables, causing a significant development in the field of astronomy, on which he also wrote a book. These astronmoncal tables were translated into european languges then were later translated into chinese. Al Khawarizmi is well known for the collaboration in the degree measurements that was ordered by Ma’mun al-Rashid  directed for measuring the volume and circumference of the earth. The influence of Al Khawarizmi on the world of science and mathematics is very great, leaving behind a legacy that amazes the world even know. If it wasn’t for Al Khawarizmi’ mathematics would have never had flourished as greatly as it did under him. His contribution and systematic way of working has held high repute, through the centuries since then.

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al Khawarizmi the great mathematician, astronomer and geographer died in 850.                                                                                                     

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The Qur’an: Introduction Part 1

December 11, 2007 at 5:53 pm · Filed under Muslim History, Supplication, The Qur'an ·Tagged , , , , , , , , ,

The Qur’an is a book of no doubt. And Allah has told us that, but not just told us, but has confirmed that it is the book of no doubt. This means whatever this book contains, is for the better for human kind and is ultimately the truth. And this is the exact sentence from the second Surah (Chapter) of the Qur’an, Surah Bakarah, verse 2: “This is the book; In it is guidance sure, without doubt, To those who fear God.” (Abdullah Yusuf Ali Translation). Let’s look at this verse closely. “This is the Book.” It is not just any book, but “the” book. One book, specifically.If you asked for the Bible, the person who you’d have asked would reply, “Which one?” because there are so many versions of the bible. It just goes to show how corrupted the Bible has become. How can you have a holy book with different versions, and still be the word of God when half of it is written by man? (I mean no offence to any Christians reading).Allah doesn’t do anything in vain. Not one word of the Qur’an has Allah sent down upon us in vain. And Allah has reassured us by saying, “In it is guidance sure, without doubt.” This book contains guidance, and the guidance is surely without doubt, as it created by the Most High, Most Wise, Allah.“To those who fear God.” When we hear the word fear, we commonly think of being scared of something. Although we do fear Allah in this way, the fear of Allah goes much further. If you fear the king, you won’t kill his game. If you fear Allah, you will not commit sins. I am not trying to say we cannot commit sins, because we inevitably will. It is human nature to do so. Whether we do it intentionally, or without realising it we should always ask for forgiveness, because Allah loves those who asks. And do not despair, because Allah has mentioned many a time in the Qur’an that he is “… oft forgiving, Most Merciful.” Hopes the thing that keeps us going. Despair is a ploy of the devil. Anyway, Allah finds ways to be merciful towards humankind, because his “Mercy overcomes his anger“, just like children would try to find excuses because they forgot their homework. Also Allah loves those who fear Allah whence alone. This is because….Say you had some sweets and you were alone, and you had to divide then equally between yourself and a friend. If you fear Allah you would be honest, and if you don’t you’d pocket a few. Fearing Allah is part of your Iman as it says in Al-Bakarah, Verse 2.

One part of Iman or your level of faith/closeness to Allah and Islam is believing in the Qur’an among other things. As it says in Al-Bakarah, Verse 4: “And who believe in the revelation Sent to thee, And sent before thy time, And (in their hearts) have the assurance of the Hereafter.”

We can’t be a Muslim if we don’t believe in the Qur’an. But the Qur’an is a book that will stay with humans till the end of time, and is the last revelation revealed through the Prophet Muhammad (SAW). This means we don’t just believe in the book, but we also believe in what the book contains. Also, not a word of the original text of the Qur’an has been changed since it was revealed. You can pick up as many Qur’an’s as you want, and they’ll all be the same. Note: The Qur’an was revealed in the Arabic language and it will only be exactly the same in the Arabic text. Translations may not be the same, but because the Qur’an cannot be understood and sometimes can be misinterpreted, footnotes will always or normally be with translation in a different language, and will always agree on the same thing, i.e. you will always understand it the same. You do get books called Tafseer and these books contain extreme in depth analysis of the Qur’an, which still can’t be fully understood with these books to help. The Qur’an is a book that will reveal to you more each time you read it, even if it is the same text.

We can’t be a true Muslim if we don’t believe in the revelations sent before the Qur’an. We cannot believe in what those books contain now, because they have been corrupted, but if the books were in their original format then we could. But because times have changed, the Bible’s or Torah’s tackling with everyday life such as law and society cannot be impute into today’s modern era. This is because the Bible was supposed to be believed in for a certain period of time before the revelation of the Qur’an. The difference between the Qur’an and the previous revelations are that the Quranic law – if followed properly – will produce a stable, God fearing community, whilst the Biblical law and the law of the other revelations would have provided what the Qur’an can provide for us now only in that specific period of time it was meant to be followed for before another revelation came. Notice how I put “can” instead of “is” because we have so veered of the right path that we have started making or own worldly laws, which in any case will never provide what the Qur’an can provide for us. And even if the Shariah law is put into place, it is always not upheld properly, and there are various other reasons why it is not stable, reasons which I’m not going to mention here.
The 7th-16th century Muslim empires were stable, because the Shariah law was upheld properly. This provided a united community, which is the basis of all civilisations and empires. The Muslim civilization and empires started to decline because we started veering and NOT FOLLOWING ALLAH’S LAW, stated for us in the Qur’an and shown to us through the Sunnah (what the Prophet Muhammad showed us).
Believing in the hereafter is a major part in a Muslims life, but that we shall discuss some other time.

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The Qur’an – Where? Part 2

December 11, 2007 at 5:47 pm · Filed under Makkah, Muslim History, Salah (Prayer), Supplication, The Qur'an ·Tagged , , , , , , ,

Picture 1: Ancient Map created by Muslim geographer Al-Idrisi with south at the top
Picture 2: Another ancient map by Al-Idrisi – Mid 11th century

Picture 3: Picture of Mecca and the Kaabah housing around 1 million muslims

As we have read in part 1, the Qur’an al-Hakim is the book of no doubt. Now we are going to read why Allah chose Makkah to be where he sent the last prophet Muhammad (SAW) and why Allah chose to reveal the Qur’an here.
Makkah is considered to be the centre of the world by Allah. Now if Allah considers this, there must be some truth to it.
In the time of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) and before his time, Makkah was the centre of worshiping Allah. All the Prophets of Allah have visited Makkah once in their lifespan. Now Makkah started to become inhabited by the Arabs after the Prophet Ibrahim (PBUH) left his wife Hajira (PBUHer) and baby son Ishmael (PBUH) at the site of the well of ZAM ZAM, by the will of Allah. From there after Hazrat Ishmael grew up, him and his farther built the Kaabah under the command of Allah. From then on the Kaabah became a site of worship, but when Hazrat Ibrahim and Ishmael and their followed passed away, through the passage of time it became a place of idol worship. And because of this, it was the centre of trade and prosperity, for people from all over Arabia came here to worship the Idols. So Makkah was a well known trade route then making it an ideal place to reveal the Qur’an and send the last Prophet Muhammad (SAW), because people from all over Arabia and beyond would come there, embrace Islam and leave to spread the word of truth to the world.

Makkah is also geographically the centre of the world. Muslims were one of the first to make accurate maps of the world and when they drew their maps, they placed south at the top. In that way, Makkah was the centre of the world, and still is, even though the poles have been swapped around.
Around the time of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) there were two superpowers. One being Rome and the other being Persia (present day Iran). These two empires were extravagant and stretched all over Asia, Africa and Europe. At this time, Makkah and Arabia were inhabited by tribes, often warring with each other. The ironic thing is, none of the two superpowers thought Arabia worthy of being part of their empire. In this way, Makkah and Arabia were free, each clan having their own rules and laws. This meant that no influence from these two superpowers could have been part of the Prophet, and this also meant that big scholars and their literature, their sciences and advancements couldn’t have been any part of the Qur’an which contains numerous scientific miracles, that have only been discovered in recent times. This just straightens the fact that the Qur’an is the word of Allah, and was not written by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), who was in fact unlettered.

I am going to conclude with saying that there is Hikmat (undoubted truth) in whatever decision Allah has ever made. But it might not be apparent at first. Mashallah.

Picture 1:http://www.hs.ias.edu/islamicworld/islamic_map_1154_ad.jpg

Picture 2:http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Travelers/Idrisimap.gif

Picture 3: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/images/makkah1.jpg

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Baghdad – Bayt al-Hikmah

December 11, 2007 at 5:28 pm · Filed under Muslim History ·Tagged , , , , , , , , ,

Baghdad only came to close attention in the 8th century, although its roots date back to ancient Babylon in 1800 BC. Baghdad, meaning “the gift from God” became a center of learning, soon after the discovery of paper after capturing Chinese papermakers in the battle of Talas- Papermaking 751 CE. In 762CE, Baghdad, located on the west side of the Tigris River became the capital of the Abbasid dynasty, as it took control of the Muslim world. Over the next five centuries, Baghdad became the home of education and learning. Muslims thrived for knowledge, and the prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) encouraged this in his life, saying to “seek learning even as far as China“. In the area of medicine, the Prophet Muhammad said, “For every disease, Allah has given a cure,” and scientists were encouraged to find those cures. This attitude toward learning and research was a powerful reason that science developed so much under Islam. Moreover, Islam encouraged learning and to read the Qu’ran, which-in one of its chapters-begins: “Recite!” (Which is also translated: “Read?”), symbolizing read to gain knowledge. Baghdad soon became a place of museums, hospitals, libraries, roads, brilliant architecture and mosques. This age was known as the `Golden Age` of Islam. Great libraries still existed in the west of Baghdad where lay the former Greek world and to the east of Baghdad where lay the Persian speaking lands. The libraries of Constantinople (present day Istanbul) and Edessa (present day Shanli-Urfa in south east Turkey) housed valuable manuscripts written in Greek and Syriac (an ancient language spoken in Syria). Jundi-Shapur, the great Sasnanian School of learning was overflowing with valuable manuscripts. It was the Muslims who were the first people to be interested in preserving and translating these manuscripts. The second caliph of the Abbasid Dynasty Al-Mansur (712-75CE) had an ancient Indian mathematical book called the “Bramasphuta Siddhanta” translated into Arabic from the ancient sacred language of Sanskrit. This is when the serious buying and translating of these manuscripts from different subjects like anatomy, medicine and astrology etc all started. Books or manuscripts from foreign lands were quickly translated and placed in Al-Mansur’s library for reference only.Caliph Harun al-Rashid (768-809) continued collecting manuscripts and translating them. They were then placed in Harun Al-Rashid’s library “Treasure of Knowledge” (Kanz Al-Hikmah in Arabic). Pieces of manuscript of books translated exceptionally well were weighed and the translators given its weight in gold.

Bayt Al-Hikmah

Although these two caliphs contributed greatly to preserving the valuable knowledge of the various subjects, it was Al-Ma’mun, son of Harun al-Rashid who contributed and supported this the most. A larger more official institution the “House of wisdom” (Bayt al-Hikmah in Arabic) was established by Al Ma’mun. Only the best translators worked in the Bayt al-Hikmah to preserve the philosophical and scientific manuscripts from foreign lands. Most of the famous Muslim scholars from the 9th to 13th centuries had their educational roots in Baghdad. Bayt al-Hikmah attracted scholars from all over the world, from many cultures and religions. They studied the works of Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, and Pythagoras. The House of Wisdom was home to, among others, the most famous mathematician of the time: Al-Khawarizmi, the “Father” of Algebra (which is named after his book “Kitab al-Jabr”). The House of Wisdom was the greatest “think tank” the medieval world had ever seen! Without the translations and research that went on here, much of the Greek, Latin and Egyptian knowledge would have been lost to the world. Much of the Muslims efforts are overlooked by the west at this present period of time, although their works are still admired by many. The historian Al-Maqrizi described the opening of the House of Wisdom in 1004:“In 1004 A.D. ‘The House of Wisdom’ was opened. The students took up their residence. The books were brought from [many other] libraries … and the public was admitted. Whosoever wanted was at liberty to copy any book he wished to copy, or whoever required to read a certain book found in the library could do so. Scholars studied the Qur’an, astronomy, grammar, lexicography and medicine. The building was, moreover, adorned by carpets and all doors and corridors had curtains, and managers, servants, porters and other menials were appointed to maintain the establishment. Out of the library of Caliph al-Hakim those books were brought which he had gathered– books in all sciences and literatures and of exquisite calligraphy such as no king had ever been able to bring together. Al-Hakim permitted admittance to everyone, without distinction of rank, who wished to read or consult any of the books”. Baghdad became a city of knowledge, “There were many libraries from which to borrow books in the Muslim civilization. Historians list thirty-six libraries in Baghdad alone around the middle of the thirteenth century, and that does not include the House of Wisdom!

The Fate of Baghdad

Since the founding of Baghdad, the city had become a city of culture and prosperity. Great caliphs, philosophers, scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, religious leaders etc lived in this truly marvelous city. This knowledge filled city where all kind of books were translated, copied and bound was one of a kind. Only Cordoba in far off Al-Andalus could be measured up to the greatness of Baghdad. Although, this city was the center of knowledge and learning in the medieval world, by the middle of the 13th century CE Baghdad and a lot of the Muslim world had become divided and lacked unity. This was mainly because the Muslim world had become divided into different small independent dynasties. This was also because of conflicts between Sunni’s and Shia’s. Much of the Muslim world and the east had suffered from the destructive wrath of the Mongols at the hands of Genghis khan (The scourge of God), in the early 13th century CE. The Mongols were superb horsemen and practiced shamanism, an old animistic religion. Their homeland was present day Mongolia. They raided and caused destruction where ever they went. When Genghis khan died his grandson Hulagu Khan carried on the legacy of his grandfather. The great Persian historian al-Juwayni who traveled with Hulagu Khan in the invasion of Persia wrote ; “They came, they burned, they slaughtered, they looted and then they left.”Hulagu Khans army consisted of people from all over the eastern empires. When invading Persia in 1257 he waged war with his horsemen as tent dwelling nomads living on mare’s milk and horse flesh, great siege engines and Chinese archers.

Assault on Baghdad

Before the death of Genghis Khan, he had in mind that he would attack Baghdad. As he died before he could attack, his grandson had to attack for him carrying on his vengeful and destructive legacy. The last Abbasid caliph Al-Must’asim bi Allah was arrogant and overconfident. He sent a message to Hulagu Khan telling him that an assault on Baghdad would move the entire Muslim world .However Hulagu Khan ignored the message and carried on massing forces. When Al-Must’asin bi Allah realized that the situation was very bad and serious, he could do nothing as it was too late. Negotiating wouldn’t resolve the problem, but he tried. He offered him the title of sultan and offered his name be mentioned in the Friday Khutbahs (sermons held in Friday prayer). Hulagu khan, the grandson on Genghis khan the scourge of god attacked Baghdad, a city of treasure and knowledge on February 10, 1258.Hundreds of thousand of innocent lives were lost that day. The city was set ablaze and plundered. The Caliph was forced to give up his treasures, and was killed along with members of his family. Although the caliph was killed, it stated in the religious laws of the Mongols that no royal blood could be spilled. Historians agree that he was rolled up in a carpet and trampled to death by horses.The illiterate Mongols ransacked palaces, homes and libraries. All the knowledge stored there in the past years was destroyed in a matter of days. It is said that the Tigris river an red with the blood of the dead then black from the ink run of the manuscripts thrown into the river.Although Baghdad was destroyed and ransacked to the ground, there was a positive outcome to this. The descendents of Hulagu khan became Muslims in later years. Uljaytu Khan (Died 1316 CE) the grandson of Hulagu khan became a Muslim and a patron of arts while his grandfather had shown no respect for knowledge. As a Muslim he encouraged the translating and coping of the Holy Qur’an.

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Cairo – Al-Azhar

December 11, 2007 at 5:27 pm · Filed under Muslim History ·Tagged , , , , , , , , , , ,

u> The Fatimid Period 969-1171CE

The Abbasids rule fell and the Fatimids fourth caliph Al Mu’iz li Dinullah took Egypt from them in 969 CE. His military commander Jawhar Al Saqilli immediately began to build a new capital for his master calling it Cairo. Cairo located on the east side of the River Nile and to the south of the Mediterranean ocean became the heart of the empire.The grand mosque Al-Azhar’s foundations were laid in 971 AD (14th of Ramadan 369 Hijrah according to the Muslim calendar) and took two years to build. The name was originally Al Qahira (The Mosque of Cairo) but was later changed to Al-Azhar (The Splendid) in honour of the prophet Muhammad’s (Peace and blessings be upon him) daughter Fatimah Al-Zahra where also the “Fatimids” name is derived from. The first prayer in this magnificent mosque took place on 788 AD (7th of Ramadan 361 Hijrah according to the Muslim Calendar).The Fatimids were of Shia belief and so the Friday sermons, call to prayer, religious lectures and how the country was run was done according to Shia laws. Prayer as held in Al-Azhar and so it became the center of religious life. From the very beginning however, Al-Azhar was a center education and learning. The first lectures took place as early as 975 CE.The caliph Al Aziz Billah established a more formal and advanced education structure. He employed qualified and renowned scholars to teach in Al-Azhar and built hostels nearby to accommodate the teachers and students. At that time, studies focused on Shia theology, but some basic grammar, literature and history was also taught. There was free tuition, plus board and lodgings.It was not until another school; Dar al Hikmah was added to Al-Azhar in 1005CE that these subjects and several sciences became significant features in Al-Azhar’s syllabus. It had raised the standard of education in Egypt and produced scholars such as Bin Zulaq author of “Fada’il Misr” (Egypt’s assets) and “Qudat Misr” (Egypt’s judges). Also ulma (scholars) like Imam suyuti, Imam Ibn Hajar Asqalani and Imam Ibn Hajar Al-Haitami glorify the name of Al Azhar and its past.

The Ayyubid Period

Salahuddin Al Ayyubi (Saladin) defeated the Fatimids in 1171 CE, returning the country to Sunni rule as it was before the Fatimids took over. Saladin became sultan of Egypt and Syria in 1176CE when the Syrian sultan Nuruddin passed away. Keen to remove the Shia influence from Egypt, he ordered that the Friday prayer be held at Al- Hakimi mosque rather than Al Azhar. It was only after a century that prayer was held in Al Azhar again. Saladin built a large array of schools all over Egypt all teaching the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence (Hanbali, Shaf’i, Maliki and Hanafi). Saladin did not close Al Azhar, but let it teach the four schools of Sunni jurisprudence. Although the fame of Al Azhar decreased a little during the Ayyubid period, it still produced some very successful and famous scholars.

Al-Azhar library

Al-Azhar library, which was compiled in1897, comprises 99,062 books consisting of 595,668 volumes of the most precious Islamic manuscripts and rare books, some as old as the 8th century. The library is a center of attraction to researchers, students and other Islamic universities. It contributes to human knowledge about the Islamic heritage by making photocopies of some of the manuscripts available for the benefit of researchers from Egypt and other countries. The library does not collect non-Islamic literature.

Legacy

Al-Azhar is considered to be the most prestegious school of Islamic learning, and its scholars seen as the most respected. Amoing it, it teaches Islamic relegion, culture and Arabic. It maintains a committee of ulma (Islamic scholars) to judge on individual Islamic questions, a printing establishment for printing the Qur’an, and training (government-appointed) preachers in Islamic missionary work. Al-Azhar is the oldest kown university to be established, even older than Oxford and Cambridge.

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